Conjunctions, interjections, and prepositions
Conjunctions according to O'Hare and Kline: "Conjunctions. A word or set of words that joins or relates to other words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or so and set) join elements that have equal grammatical rank. Correlative conjunctions (both ... and, neither ... nor, not only ... but also, whether ... or, just as ... so) are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions (after, so long as, because, if, since, so that, unless, until, while, etc.) join subordinating, or dependent, clauses to main, or independent, clauses." (The Modern Writer's Handbook, 3rd edition, 626).
Interjections according to Perrin: "Interjection. A word that expresses surprise or emotion or that provides a conversational transition." (The Beacon Handbook, 2nd edition, 661)
Prepositions according to Donald et al: "Prepositions seem to be such small and commonplace words that their real significance is often overlooked.... Indeed, you can only successfully define them in the general sense of them all: prepositions are a class of words that when placed before nouns express such relationships as time, space, possession, intention, accompaniment" (Writing Clear Essays, 3rd edition, 147)
Sunday, March 30, 2008
Tuesday, March 25, 2008
A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues
More of the "little" things in writing: adjectives, articles, and adverbs
The 1992 revision 16 version of A WRITER'S ALPHABET OF CONCEPTS AND CLUES includes the following on Adjectives and Adverbs: Adjectives function as modifiers of nouns and pronouns by describing, defining, specifying, or qualifying. They usually come between article and noun or after linking verbs. Adjectives can change form to show comparison. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole sentences. They can appear almost anywhere in the sentence as long as it is clear what they modify. Often adverbs end in -ly. Like adjectives, adverbs can change form to indicate comparison.
Since then, I have added the following:
Lunsford and Connors: "A, and or the (are) the most common adjectives (which function as articles). A and an are indefinite and do not specify the nouns they modify.... The is definite or specific." (The St. Martin's Press Handbook, 2nd edition, 731)
Troyka: "The differences between adjectives and adverbs relate to how they function. Adjectives modify NOUNS and PRONOUNS. Adverbs modify VERBS, adjectives, and other adverbs. What's the same about adjectives and adverbs is that they are both MODIFIERS--that is, words and groups of words that describe other words" (The Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers, 6th edition., 250).
Zinsser on adverbs: "Most adverbs are unnecessary. You will clutter your sentences and annoy the reader if you choose a verb that has a specific meaning and then add an adverb that carries the same meaning. Don't tell us that the radio blared loudly; "blare" connotes loudness. Don't write that someone clenched his teeth tightly; there's no other way to clench teeth. Again and again in careless writing, strong verbs are weakened by redundant adverbs. So are adjectives and other parts of speech" (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 69)
The 1992 revision 16 version of A WRITER'S ALPHABET OF CONCEPTS AND CLUES includes the following on Adjectives and Adverbs: Adjectives function as modifiers of nouns and pronouns by describing, defining, specifying, or qualifying. They usually come between article and noun or after linking verbs. Adjectives can change form to show comparison. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole sentences. They can appear almost anywhere in the sentence as long as it is clear what they modify. Often adverbs end in -ly. Like adjectives, adverbs can change form to indicate comparison.
Since then, I have added the following:
Lunsford and Connors: "A, and or the (are) the most common adjectives (which function as articles). A and an are indefinite and do not specify the nouns they modify.... The is definite or specific." (The St. Martin's Press Handbook, 2nd edition, 731)
Troyka: "The differences between adjectives and adverbs relate to how they function. Adjectives modify NOUNS and PRONOUNS. Adverbs modify VERBS, adjectives, and other adverbs. What's the same about adjectives and adverbs is that they are both MODIFIERS--that is, words and groups of words that describe other words" (The Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers, 6th edition., 250).
Zinsser on adverbs: "Most adverbs are unnecessary. You will clutter your sentences and annoy the reader if you choose a verb that has a specific meaning and then add an adverb that carries the same meaning. Don't tell us that the radio blared loudly; "blare" connotes loudness. Don't write that someone clenched his teeth tightly; there's no other way to clench teeth. Again and again in careless writing, strong verbs are weakened by redundant adverbs. So are adjectives and other parts of speech" (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 69)
Zinsser on adjectives: "Most adjectives are also unnecessary. Like adverbs they are sprinkled into sentences by writers who don't stop to think that the concept is already in the noun. This type of prose is littered with precipitous cliffs and lacy spiderwebs, or with adjectives denoting the color of an object whose color is well known: yellow daffodils and brownish dirt. If you want to make a value judgement about daffodils, choose an adjective like 'garish.' If you're in a part of the country where the dirt is red, feel free to mention the red dirt. Those adjectives would do a job that the noun alone wouldn't be doing" (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 70)
Tuesday, March 18, 2008
A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues
Parts of Speech
Among the "little" things in writing are elements referred to as parts of speech: adjectives, articles, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, prepositions, pronouns, and verbs.
I like the way Heather MacFadyen explains them: "Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next." www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/partsp.html]
My entries in my writer's alphabet of concepts and clues draw on other resources as well.
Perrin on nouns: "Proper nouns name people, places, and things: Julia Child, Stockholm, Corvette. They are always capitalized. Common nouns name people, places, or things, by general type: chef, city, sports car. They are not capitalized. Collective nouns name groups of people or things; although each group includes two or more members, it is usually considered one group: team, class, group, audience. Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, and conditions: freedom, honesty, shyness. Concrete nouns name things or qualities perceptible by the senses: chair, salt, warmth, noise" (The Beacon Handbook, 2nd edition, 141-142)
O'Hare and Kline on pronouns: "A personal pronoun takes the place of a noun that names a person or thing: I, me, mine; you, your, yours; he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, its, we, us, our, ours; they, them, their, theirs. A demonstrative pronoun points to someone or something: this, that, these, those. An indefinite pronoun does not take the place of a particular noun. It carries the idea of "all," "some," "any," or "none"; everyone, everything, somebody, any, anyone, anything, no one, nobody. An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question: who, whom, whose, what, which. A relative pronoun is used to form an adjective clause or a noun clause: who, whose, whom, which, that, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever An intensive pronoun is used for emphasis. It is formed by adding -self or -selves to the end of a personal pronoun. A reflexive pronoun, which has the same form as an intensive pronoun, is used to show that the subject is acting upon itself." (The Modern Writer's Handbook, 3rd edition, 633).
Zinsser on verbs: "Verbs are the most important of all your tools. They push the sentence forward and give it momentum. Active verbs push hard; passive verbs tug fitfully. Active verbs allow us to visualize an activity because they require a pronoun ('he'), or a noun ('ththe boy'), or a person ('Mrs. Scott') to put them in motion. Many verbs also carry in
their imagery or in their sound a suggestion of what they mean: glitter, dazzle, twirl, beguile, scatter, swagger, poke, pamper, vex. Probably no other language has such a vast supply of verbs so bright with color. Don't choose one that is dull or merely serviceable. Make active verbs activate your sentences, and try to avoid the kind that need an appended preposition to complete their work. Don't set up a business that you can start or launch. Don't say that the president of the company stepped down. Did he resign? Did he retire? Did he get fired? Be precise. Use precise verbs." (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 69)
Among the "little" things in writing are elements referred to as parts of speech: adjectives, articles, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, prepositions, pronouns, and verbs.
I like the way Heather MacFadyen explains them: "Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next." www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/partsp.html]
My entries in my writer's alphabet of concepts and clues draw on other resources as well.
Perrin on nouns: "Proper nouns name people, places, and things: Julia Child, Stockholm, Corvette. They are always capitalized. Common nouns name people, places, or things, by general type: chef, city, sports car. They are not capitalized. Collective nouns name groups of people or things; although each group includes two or more members, it is usually considered one group: team, class, group, audience. Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, and conditions: freedom, honesty, shyness. Concrete nouns name things or qualities perceptible by the senses: chair, salt, warmth, noise" (The Beacon Handbook, 2nd edition, 141-142)
O'Hare and Kline on pronouns: "A personal pronoun takes the place of a noun that names a person or thing: I, me, mine; you, your, yours; he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, its, we, us, our, ours; they, them, their, theirs. A demonstrative pronoun points to someone or something: this, that, these, those. An indefinite pronoun does not take the place of a particular noun. It carries the idea of "all," "some," "any," or "none"; everyone, everything, somebody, any, anyone, anything, no one, nobody. An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question: who, whom, whose, what, which. A relative pronoun is used to form an adjective clause or a noun clause: who, whose, whom, which, that, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever An intensive pronoun is used for emphasis. It is formed by adding -self or -selves to the end of a personal pronoun. A reflexive pronoun, which has the same form as an intensive pronoun, is used to show that the subject is acting upon itself." (The Modern Writer's Handbook, 3rd edition, 633).
Zinsser on verbs: "Verbs are the most important of all your tools. They push the sentence forward and give it momentum. Active verbs push hard; passive verbs tug fitfully. Active verbs allow us to visualize an activity because they require a pronoun ('he'), or a noun ('ththe boy'), or a person ('Mrs. Scott') to put them in motion. Many verbs also carry in
their imagery or in their sound a suggestion of what they mean: glitter, dazzle, twirl, beguile, scatter, swagger, poke, pamper, vex. Probably no other language has such a vast supply of verbs so bright with color. Don't choose one that is dull or merely serviceable. Make active verbs activate your sentences, and try to avoid the kind that need an appended preposition to complete their work. Don't set up a business that you can start or launch. Don't say that the president of the company stepped down. Did he resign? Did he retire? Did he get fired? Be precise. Use precise verbs." (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 69)
Tuesday, March 11, 2008
Getting It Write
Wheat and chaff take
Equal
Amounts of time and effort, of
Elbow grease.
Editing is a process of taking wheat and chaff and
Time and
Effort and
Elbow grease, shaking and shifting, shaking and sifting, until
Something gives
Something falls
Something is satisfactory albeit not
Perfect and more muscle and crumpled page and full wastebasket
Testify satisfactorily to wheat
And chaff having settled each
Into its rightful place . . .
For now.
Equal
Amounts of time and effort, of
Elbow grease.
Editing is a process of taking wheat and chaff and
Time and
Effort and
Elbow grease, shaking and shifting, shaking and sifting, until
Something gives
Something falls
Something is satisfactory albeit not
Perfect and more muscle and crumpled page and full wastebasket
Testify satisfactorily to wheat
And chaff having settled each
Into its rightful place . . .
For now.
Monday, March 10, 2008
A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues
Other Writers on Paragraphs
Dietsch: "Summary: The two basic elements of a standard paragraph are the topic sentence and support sentences. Some paragraphs have a third part, a concluding sentence. The topic sentence identifies the subject and makes a claim about it. The support sentences supply proof. The concluding sentence gives a sense of completeness.
Effective paragraphs have five distinct features: clarity, interest, unity, coherence, and completeness. A topic sentence should be narrowed sufficiently to interest the reader and unify the paragraph. Although most topic sentences are placed at the beginning, they may appear in the middle or at the end of the paragraph. In special circumstances, a paragraph may not have a topic sentence.
Paragraph length is determined by audience, subject, and purpose.
Paragraphs may be arranged according to chronology, importance, complexity, generality, familiarity, emphasis, or some other logical order. A special type is the transitional paragraph, which may serve as a bridge between ideas." (REASONING AND WRITING WELL, 3rd ed., 90).
Troyka: "Three characteristics of effective body paragraphs: UDC
U=Unity: Have you made a clear connection between the main idea of the paragraph and the sentences that support the main idea?
D=Development: Have you included detailed and sufficient support for the main idea of the paragraph?
C-Coherence: Have you progressed logically from one sentence to the next in the paragraph smoothly and logically?" (SIMON & SCHUSTER HANDBOOK FOR WRITERS, 6th ed., 77).
"The hardest decision about any article is how to begin it," Zinsser claims. "The lead can be as short as one paragraph and as long as it needs to be. You know it's over when all the necessary work has been done and you can take a more relaxed tone and get on with your narrative." (ON WRITING WELL, 6th ed., 266).
"The perfect ending should take your readers slightly by surprise and yet seem exactly right." (Zinsser. ON WRITING WELL. 6th ed., 65).
How do you know when you have reached the end of your piece? "For the nonfiction writer, the simplest way of putting this into a rule is: when you're ready to stop, stop. If you have presented all the facts and made the point you want to make, look for the nearest exit. Often it takes just a few sentences to wrap it up." (Zinsser. ON WRITING WELL. 6th ed., 66).
"The qualities of a good paragraph--things like unity, coherence, organization, completeness--have been stressed in every writing course you have taken. When you revise your paper, look carefully at each paragraph to see if it exhibits those qualities. How often have you paragraphed? If you have only one or two paragraphs in a several-page essay, you have not clearly indicated the structure of your essay to your reader or your essay does not have a clear, logical organization. On the other hand, if you have many short paragraphs, you are over paragraphing, probably shifting ideas too quickly and failing to develop each one adequately. A good paragraph is meaty; it is not a string of undeveloped ideas or bare generalizations." ( Miller. THE PRENTICE HALL READER. 3RD ED., 14).
Dietsch: "Summary: The two basic elements of a standard paragraph are the topic sentence and support sentences. Some paragraphs have a third part, a concluding sentence. The topic sentence identifies the subject and makes a claim about it. The support sentences supply proof. The concluding sentence gives a sense of completeness.
Effective paragraphs have five distinct features: clarity, interest, unity, coherence, and completeness. A topic sentence should be narrowed sufficiently to interest the reader and unify the paragraph. Although most topic sentences are placed at the beginning, they may appear in the middle or at the end of the paragraph. In special circumstances, a paragraph may not have a topic sentence.
Paragraph length is determined by audience, subject, and purpose.
Paragraphs may be arranged according to chronology, importance, complexity, generality, familiarity, emphasis, or some other logical order. A special type is the transitional paragraph, which may serve as a bridge between ideas." (REASONING AND WRITING WELL, 3rd ed., 90).
Troyka: "Three characteristics of effective body paragraphs: UDC
U=Unity: Have you made a clear connection between the main idea of the paragraph and the sentences that support the main idea?
D=Development: Have you included detailed and sufficient support for the main idea of the paragraph?
C-Coherence: Have you progressed logically from one sentence to the next in the paragraph smoothly and logically?" (SIMON & SCHUSTER HANDBOOK FOR WRITERS, 6th ed., 77).
"The hardest decision about any article is how to begin it," Zinsser claims. "The lead can be as short as one paragraph and as long as it needs to be. You know it's over when all the necessary work has been done and you can take a more relaxed tone and get on with your narrative." (ON WRITING WELL, 6th ed., 266).
"The perfect ending should take your readers slightly by surprise and yet seem exactly right." (Zinsser. ON WRITING WELL. 6th ed., 65).
How do you know when you have reached the end of your piece? "For the nonfiction writer, the simplest way of putting this into a rule is: when you're ready to stop, stop. If you have presented all the facts and made the point you want to make, look for the nearest exit. Often it takes just a few sentences to wrap it up." (Zinsser. ON WRITING WELL. 6th ed., 66).
"The qualities of a good paragraph--things like unity, coherence, organization, completeness--have been stressed in every writing course you have taken. When you revise your paper, look carefully at each paragraph to see if it exhibits those qualities. How often have you paragraphed? If you have only one or two paragraphs in a several-page essay, you have not clearly indicated the structure of your essay to your reader or your essay does not have a clear, logical organization. On the other hand, if you have many short paragraphs, you are over paragraphing, probably shifting ideas too quickly and failing to develop each one adequately. A good paragraph is meaty; it is not a string of undeveloped ideas or bare generalizations." ( Miller. THE PRENTICE HALL READER. 3RD ED., 14).
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