A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

inflection
noun
1531
1. the act or result of curving or bending: BEND
2. the change in pitch or loudness of the voice
3 a: the change of form that words undergo to mark such distinctions as those of case, gender, number, tense, person, mood, or voice b: a form, suffix, or element involved in such variation c: ACCIDENCE
4 a: change in curvature of an arc or curve from concave to convex or conversely b: INFLECTION POINT

Inflection: "The changes of form that words undergo to mark such distinctions as those of case (the form that a noun or pronoun takes according to its grammatical role in a sentence (subjective, objective, or possessive)" (Perrin, The Beacon Handbook, 1987,655).

"Gender: nouns and pronouns are masculine, feminine, or neuter" (O'Hare and Kline, The Modern Writer's Handbook, 3rd edition, 155).

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Grammar and its components

Last November I posted this regarding grammar: Accuracy of focus cannot be achieved without attention to grammatical detail, including appropriate inflection (the changes of form that words undergo to mark such distinctions as those of case, gender, number, tense, person, mood, or voice) and syntax (the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences). This post and subsequent posts will cover these components in greater detail.

Ken Macrorie: "The good writer masters grammar in order to control his words, and meaning is his target." (Flachmann and Flachmann, The Prose Reader, 2nd edition, 342)

accidence: a part of grammar that deals with inflections

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Conjunctions, interjections, and prepositions

Conjunctions according to O'Hare and Kline: "Conjunctions. A word or set of words that joins or relates to other words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or so and set) join elements that have equal grammatical rank. Correlative conjunctions (both ... and, neither ... nor, not only ... but also, whether ... or, just as ... so) are always used in pairs. Subordinating conjunctions (after, so long as, because, if, since, so that, unless, until, while, etc.) join subordinating, or dependent, clauses to main, or independent, clauses." (The Modern Writer's Handbook, 3rd edition, 626).

Interjections according to Perrin: "Interjection. A word that expresses surprise or emotion or that provides a conversational transition." (The Beacon Handbook, 2nd edition, 661)

Prepositions according to Donald et al: "Prepositions seem to be such small and commonplace words that their real significance is often overlooked.... Indeed, you can only successfully define them in the general sense of them all: prepositions are a class of words that when placed before nouns express such relationships as time, space, possession, intention, accompaniment" (Writing Clear Essays, 3rd edition, 147)

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

More of the "little" things in writing: adjectives, articles, and adverbs

The 1992 revision 16 version of A WRITER'S ALPHABET OF CONCEPTS AND CLUES includes the following on Adjectives and Adverbs: Adjectives function as modifiers of nouns and pronouns by describing, defining, specifying, or qualifying. They usually come between article and noun or after linking verbs. Adjectives can change form to show comparison. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or whole sentences. They can appear almost anywhere in the sentence as long as it is clear what they modify. Often adverbs end in -ly. Like adjectives, adverbs can change form to indicate comparison.

Since then, I have added the following:

Lunsford and Connors: "A, and or the (are) the most common adjectives (which function as articles). A and an are indefinite and do not specify the nouns they modify.... The is definite or specific." (The St. Martin's Press Handbook, 2nd edition, 731)

Troyka: "The differences between adjectives and adverbs relate to how they function. Adjectives modify NOUNS and PRONOUNS. Adverbs modify VERBS, adjectives, and other adverbs. What's the same about adjectives and adverbs is that they are both MODIFIERS--that is, words and groups of words that describe other words" (The Simon & Schuster Handbook for Writers, 6th edition., 250).

Zinsser on adverbs: "Most adverbs are unnecessary. You will clutter your sentences and annoy the reader if you choose a verb that has a specific meaning and then add an adverb that carries the same meaning. Don't tell us that the radio blared loudly; "blare" connotes loudness. Don't write that someone clenched his teeth tightly; there's no other way to clench teeth. Again and again in careless writing, strong verbs are weakened by redundant adverbs. So are adjectives and other parts of speech" (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 69)

Zinsser on adjectives: "Most adjectives are also unnecessary. Like adverbs they are sprinkled into sentences by writers who don't stop to think that the concept is already in the noun. This type of prose is littered with precipitous cliffs and lacy spiderwebs, or with adjectives denoting the color of an object whose color is well known: yellow daffodils and brownish dirt. If you want to make a value judgement about daffodils, choose an adjective like 'garish.' If you're in a part of the country where the dirt is red, feel free to mention the red dirt. Those adjectives would do a job that the noun alone wouldn't be doing" (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 70)

Ezra Pound on adjectives: "Use no superfluous word, no adjective, which does not reveal something. Don't use an expression such as 'dim land of peace.' It dulls the image. It mixes an abstract with the concrete. It comes from the writer's not realizing that the natural object is always the adequate symbol. Go in fear of abstractions." (April 10 entry, 2008 poetry speaks the poetry lovers calendar, sourcebooks)

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Parts of Speech

Among the "little" things in writing are elements referred to as parts of speech: adjectives, articles, adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, nouns, prepositions, pronouns, and verbs.

I like the way Heather MacFadyen explains them: "Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next." www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/partsp.html]

My entries in my writer's alphabet of concepts and clues draw on other resources as well.

Perrin on nouns: "Proper nouns name people, places, and things: Julia Child, Stockholm, Corvette. They are always capitalized. Common nouns name people, places, or things, by general type: chef, city, sports car. They are not capitalized. Collective nouns name groups of people or things; although each group includes two or more members, it is usually considered one group: team, class, group, audience. Abstract nouns name ideas, qualities, and conditions: freedom, honesty, shyness. Concrete nouns name things or qualities perceptible by the senses: chair, salt, warmth, noise" (The Beacon Handbook, 2nd edition, 141-142)

O'Hare and Kline on pronouns: "A personal pronoun takes the place of a noun that names a person or thing: I, me, mine; you, your, yours; he, him, his; she, her, hers; it, its, we, us, our, ours; they, them, their, theirs. A demonstrative pronoun points to someone or something: this, that, these, those. An indefinite pronoun does not take the place of a particular noun. It carries the idea of "all," "some," "any," or "none"; everyone, everything, somebody, any, anyone, anything, no one, nobody. An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question: who, whom, whose, what, which. A relative pronoun is used to form an adjective clause or a noun clause: who, whose, whom, which, that, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever An intensive pronoun is used for emphasis. It is formed by adding -self or -selves to the end of a personal pronoun. A reflexive pronoun, which has the same form as an intensive pronoun, is used to show that the subject is acting upon itself." (The Modern Writer's Handbook, 3rd edition, 633).


Zinsser on verbs: "Verbs are the most important of all your tools. They push the sentence forward and give it momentum. Active verbs push hard; passive verbs tug fitfully. Active verbs allow us to visualize an activity because they require a pronoun ('he'), or a noun ('ththe boy'), or a person ('Mrs. Scott') to put them in motion. Many verbs also carry in
their imagery or in their sound a suggestion of what they mean: glitter, dazzle, twirl, beguile, scatter, swagger, poke, pamper, vex. Probably no other language has such a vast supply of verbs so bright with color. Don't choose one that is dull or merely serviceable. Make active verbs activate your sentences, and try to avoid the kind that need an appended preposition to complete their work. Don't set up a business that you can start or launch. Don't say that the president of the company stepped down. Did he resign? Did he retire? Did he get fired? Be precise. Use precise verbs." (On Writing Well, 6th edition, 69)

Getting It Write

Wheat and chaff take
Equal
Amounts of time and effort, of
Elbow grease.
Editing is a process of taking wheat and chaff and
Time and
Effort and
Elbow grease, shaking and shifting, shaking and sifting, until
Something gives
Something falls
Something is satisfactory albeit not
Perfect and more muscle and crumpled page and full wastebasket
Testify satisfactorily to wheat
And chaff having settled each
Into its rightful place . . .
For now.

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Other Writers on Paragraphs


Dietsch: "Summary: The two basic elements of a standard paragraph are the topic sentence and support sentences. Some paragraphs have a third part, a concluding sentence. The topic sentence identifies the subject and makes a claim about it. The support sentences supply proof. The concluding sentence gives a sense of completeness.

Effective paragraphs have five distinct features: clarity, interest, unity, coherence, and completeness. A topic sentence should be narrowed sufficiently to interest the reader and unify the paragraph. Although most topic sentences are placed at the beginning, they may appear in the middle or at the end of the paragraph. In special circumstances, a paragraph may not have a topic sentence.

Paragraph length is determined by audience, subject, and purpose.

Paragraphs may be arranged according to chronology, importance, complexity, generality, familiarity, emphasis, or some other logical order. A special type is the transitional paragraph, which may serve as a bridge between ideas." (REASONING AND WRITING WELL, 3rd ed., 90).


Troyka: "Three characteristics of effective body paragraphs: UDC
U=Unity: Have you made a clear connection between the main idea of the paragraph and the sentences that support the main idea?
D=Development: Have you included detailed and sufficient support for the main idea of the paragraph?
C-Coherence: Have you progressed logically from one sentence to the next in the paragraph smoothly and logically?" (SIMON & SCHUSTER HANDBOOK FOR WRITERS, 6th ed., 77).

"The hardest decision about any article is how to begin it," Zinsser claims. "The lead can be as short as one paragraph and as long as it needs to be. You know it's over when all the necessary work has been done and you can take a more relaxed tone and get on with your narrative." (ON WRITING WELL, 6th ed., 266).

"The perfect ending should take your readers slightly by surprise and yet seem exactly right." (Zinsser. ON WRITING WELL. 6th ed., 65).

How do you know when you have reached the end of your piece? "For the nonfiction writer, the simplest way of putting this into a rule is: when you're ready to stop, stop. If you have presented all the facts and made the point you want to make, look for the nearest exit. Often it takes just a few sentences to wrap it up." (Zinsser. ON WRITING WELL. 6th ed., 66).

"The qualities of a good paragraph--things like unity, coherence, organization, completeness--have been stressed in every writing course you have taken. When you revise your paper, look carefully at each paragraph to see if it exhibits those qualities. How often have you paragraphed? If you have only one or two paragraphs in a several-page essay, you have not clearly indicated the structure of your essay to your reader or your essay does not have a clear, logical organization. On the other hand, if you have many short paragraphs, you are over paragraphing, probably shifting ideas too quickly and failing to develop each one adequately. A good paragraph is meaty; it is not a string of undeveloped ideas or bare generalizations." ( Miller. THE PRENTICE HALL READER. 3RD ED., 14).

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

NOUNS

Most simply put, nouns name. They can identify a person, a place, an object, a concept, an idea, or an event.

ORGANIZATION

Putting it all together is also ongoing; if it isn't, that shows too; an ounce of now is worth a pound of the night before.

Outlining, whether formal or informal, helps you see where you can go with your work as well as where you've already thought of going. PURPOSE DRIVES ORGANIZATION.

With an outline and a thesis statement in hand, you will find it easier to do your research and then to draft your paper. This applies to any type of writing.

ORGANIZATION--PATTERNS OF

There are several basic patterns for organizing a piece of writing:

spatial--from a point--top to bottom, side to side, as either a stationary or mobile observer; this is the usual form for descriptive writing;

chronological--order of occurrence; this is the usual form for narrative writing and for process analysis;

general to specific--this is the usual pattern for cause and effect analysis, definition, or deductive reasoning;

specific to general--this is the usual pattern for inductive reasoning;

climactic--from the least important to the most important--the opposite of most journalistic writing; this is the usual pattern for division and example, but is also used in descriptive and narrative writing depending on the outcome the writer desires.

OUTLINING

There are a number of forms from which to choose. Sometimes you will be required to create and conform to a formal outline, with the Roman numerals and capitalized and lower-case letters involved. At other times, a less formal outline will do, one which contains only the main ideas you plan to include and their order. Many English composition textbooks present a good selection of outline options.

PARAGRAPHS

A paragraph is a written form of organized thinking which, if well-ordered, will move forward the point of the work until you can reach a conclusion, rather than merely stopping.

A good paragraph is something like a miniature essay. It has one central idea, which is expanded upon with both general assertions and specific statements. It is not a sequence of unrelated statements. Each sentence is complete in itself, yet it is needed to complete the understanding of those which go before it and follow after it.

And, as with an essay, there is more than one purpose for a paragraph and more than one way it can be organized. The most difficult to write are often the first and the final paragraphs.

The opening paragraph should not merely introduce the paper with a bland statement of intent. It needs to cause the reader to want to continue reading. It needs to engage the reader. Some of the ways this can be done include using an anecdote or short story, presenting some surprising facts, or asking a question.

The closing paragraph should wrap up all that preceded it. Don't just stop writing and leave your reader in suspense. Write a real conclusion. For example, you might state what the reader ought to consider doing (especially if this is a persuasive or argumentative paper), present a strong quotation which helps drive home the thesis, or provide appropriate statistics.

The development paragraphs should flesh out the thesis of the paper so that the paper is not a mere skeleton. There are several basic patterns of development: analogy; cause-and-effect; comparison and contrast; definition; description; division and classification; narration; and process analysis. These often are combined, of course, not mutually exclusive, though one will usually be dominant. The patterns you choose will depend on your purpose and audience.

In the 6Th edition of ON WRITING WELL, Zinsser states: "Keep your paragraphs short.... But don't go berserk. A succession of tiny paragraphs is as annoying as a paragraph that's too long....
Paragraphing is a subtle but important element in writing nonfiction articles and books, a road map constantly telling your reader how you have organized your ideas. Study good nonfiction to writers to see how they do it. You'll find almost all of them think in paragraph units, not sentence units. Each paragraph has its own integrity of content and structure." (80-81)

Logic and Reasoning in Writing, Narration, Notes

LOGIC AND REASONING
Logical reasoning is also basic to good writing. No matter what you write or who you write for, you have to state your case sensibly and in an orderly fashion. You have to select which approach you will take when it comes to logic also.

"Logic is the structure of an argument, just as grammar is the structure of language," according to Gefvert (THE CONFIDENT WRITER: A NORTON HANDBOOK. New York: W.W. Norton, 1988).

And Flachmann and Flachmann have stated: "To construct a logical argument, you have two principle patterns available to you: inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. The first encourages an audience to make what is called an 'inductive leap' from several particular examples to a single, useful generalization.... Used most often by detectives, scientists, and lawyers, the process of inductive reasoning addresses an audience's ability to think logically by moving them systematically from an assortment of selected evidence to a rational and ordered conclusion" (THE PROSE READER: ESSAYS FOR THINKING, READING, AND WRITING.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).

They continue: "In contrast, deductive reasoning moves its audience from a broad, general statement to particular examples supporting that statement.... Although the actual mental process we go through in creating a deductive argument is quite sophisticated, it is based upon a three-step form of reasoning known as the 'syllogism,' which most logicians believe is the foundation of logical thinking" (THE PROSE READER: ESSAYS FOR THINKING, READING, AND WRITING. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).

Cooley adds to their statements with his: "Whenever you write an argument, you should ask two distinct questions: Are the premises of my argument true? Does my conclusion follow from the premises? The second of these--do the premises support the conclusion--is a question of strength. In the case of deductive reasoning, they do or they don't: a deductive argument is either valid or invalid. There is no in between. Some inductive arguments, however, are stronger than others.... Induction, therefore, deals only with probability, whereas deductive deals with certainty: granted the premises, the conclusion of a well-constructed deductive argument must follow" (THE NORTON GUIDE TO WRITING. NY: W.W. NORTON & CO., 1992).

Robert Perrin introduced me to a third form of logical reasoning: "Warrant-based reasoning is a process somewhat like the writing process. Beginning with an idea expressed as a thesis or an assertion, the writer accumulates necessary supporting evidence through research or other forms of planning. The writer;s values and perspective emerge most clearly in the underlying warrant, the sometimes unstated or implicit connection that the writer makes between the assertion and the evidence. Although the writer's reasoning must be sound, it will not have the inevitability of deductive or inductive reasoning. Thus, in order for the writer to convince readers of the validity of the assertion, the evidence offered must be convincing and complete" (THE BEACON HANDBOOK. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987).

Other books also refer to this kind of reasoning and credit Stephen Toulmin--referred to in one source as "British logician" and in another as "philosopher" with developing the model for this.

"The Toulmin model of argument
Toulmin's term: claim
More familiar terms: the main point or central meaning, usually expressed in the thesis statement
Toulmin's term: support
More familiar terms: data or other evidence, from broad reasons to specific details
Toulmin's term: warrants
More familiar terms: underlying assumptions, usually not stated but clearly implied; readers infer assumptions
"Warrants fall into three categories: (1) Warrants based on authority rest on respect for the credibility and trustworthiness of the person. (2) Warrants based on substance rest on the reliability of factual evidence. (3) Warrants based on motivation rest on the values and beliefs of the writer and audience.
"The concepts of the Toulmin model can help you not only write but also read arguments with a critical eye" (Troyka, Lynn Quitman. THE SIMON AND SCHUSTER HANDBOOK FOR WRITERS. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993).

NARRATION
Narrative writing emphasizes action and a series of events--if only in the mind of the narrator.
Sometimes it forms part of a larger non-fiction piece. Often it is used in a short form to introduce or to make a point more clear (illustration). Vivid and real details help make narrative writing work and engage the reader.
Narratives are usually organized by time, whereas descriptive writing is generally organized by space. While narration emphasizes action and events, description highlights sensory details. They commonly appear together, however, as a narrative without details is flat and uninteresting and details without a context are no more exciting than a grocery list.
The two overall uses of narrative writing are to entertain and to make a point. In either instance--whether your intention is to entertain or to make a point--spend as much time possible on prewriting, organizing, drafting, and editing.

NOTES
Writing is not a linear process of preparing, writing, and revising. All three take place simultaneously.
Use your journal to jot down ideas and quotes as a way to always be ready and to always be preparing to do a work of writing.
Good note taking can make good academic writing easier because you aren't always starting with a blank sheet of paper or staring at a blank screen when an assignment is due.