Logic and Reasoning in Writing, Narration, Notes

LOGIC AND REASONING
Logical reasoning is also basic to good writing. No matter what you write or who you write for, you have to state your case sensibly and in an orderly fashion. You have to select which approach you will take when it comes to logic also.

"Logic is the structure of an argument, just as grammar is the structure of language," according to Gefvert (THE CONFIDENT WRITER: A NORTON HANDBOOK. New York: W.W. Norton, 1988).

And Flachmann and Flachmann have stated: "To construct a logical argument, you have two principle patterns available to you: inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. The first encourages an audience to make what is called an 'inductive leap' from several particular examples to a single, useful generalization.... Used most often by detectives, scientists, and lawyers, the process of inductive reasoning addresses an audience's ability to think logically by moving them systematically from an assortment of selected evidence to a rational and ordered conclusion" (THE PROSE READER: ESSAYS FOR THINKING, READING, AND WRITING.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).

They continue: "In contrast, deductive reasoning moves its audience from a broad, general statement to particular examples supporting that statement.... Although the actual mental process we go through in creating a deductive argument is quite sophisticated, it is based upon a three-step form of reasoning known as the 'syllogism,' which most logicians believe is the foundation of logical thinking" (THE PROSE READER: ESSAYS FOR THINKING, READING, AND WRITING. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1990).

Cooley adds to their statements with his: "Whenever you write an argument, you should ask two distinct questions: Are the premises of my argument true? Does my conclusion follow from the premises? The second of these--do the premises support the conclusion--is a question of strength. In the case of deductive reasoning, they do or they don't: a deductive argument is either valid or invalid. There is no in between. Some inductive arguments, however, are stronger than others.... Induction, therefore, deals only with probability, whereas deductive deals with certainty: granted the premises, the conclusion of a well-constructed deductive argument must follow" (THE NORTON GUIDE TO WRITING. NY: W.W. NORTON & CO., 1992).

Robert Perrin introduced me to a third form of logical reasoning: "Warrant-based reasoning is a process somewhat like the writing process. Beginning with an idea expressed as a thesis or an assertion, the writer accumulates necessary supporting evidence through research or other forms of planning. The writer;s values and perspective emerge most clearly in the underlying warrant, the sometimes unstated or implicit connection that the writer makes between the assertion and the evidence. Although the writer's reasoning must be sound, it will not have the inevitability of deductive or inductive reasoning. Thus, in order for the writer to convince readers of the validity of the assertion, the evidence offered must be convincing and complete" (THE BEACON HANDBOOK. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1987).

Other books also refer to this kind of reasoning and credit Stephen Toulmin--referred to in one source as "British logician" and in another as "philosopher" with developing the model for this.

"The Toulmin model of argument
Toulmin's term: claim
More familiar terms: the main point or central meaning, usually expressed in the thesis statement
Toulmin's term: support
More familiar terms: data or other evidence, from broad reasons to specific details
Toulmin's term: warrants
More familiar terms: underlying assumptions, usually not stated but clearly implied; readers infer assumptions
"Warrants fall into three categories: (1) Warrants based on authority rest on respect for the credibility and trustworthiness of the person. (2) Warrants based on substance rest on the reliability of factual evidence. (3) Warrants based on motivation rest on the values and beliefs of the writer and audience.
"The concepts of the Toulmin model can help you not only write but also read arguments with a critical eye" (Troyka, Lynn Quitman. THE SIMON AND SCHUSTER HANDBOOK FOR WRITERS. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993).

NARRATION
Narrative writing emphasizes action and a series of events--if only in the mind of the narrator.
Sometimes it forms part of a larger non-fiction piece. Often it is used in a short form to introduce or to make a point more clear (illustration). Vivid and real details help make narrative writing work and engage the reader.
Narratives are usually organized by time, whereas descriptive writing is generally organized by space. While narration emphasizes action and events, description highlights sensory details. They commonly appear together, however, as a narrative without details is flat and uninteresting and details without a context are no more exciting than a grocery list.
The two overall uses of narrative writing are to entertain and to make a point. In either instance--whether your intention is to entertain or to make a point--spend as much time possible on prewriting, organizing, drafting, and editing.

NOTES
Writing is not a linear process of preparing, writing, and revising. All three take place simultaneously.
Use your journal to jot down ideas and quotes as a way to always be ready and to always be preparing to do a work of writing.
Good note taking can make good academic writing easier because you aren't always starting with a blank sheet of paper or staring at a blank screen when an assignment is due.

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

FICTION
comes from the writer's imagination/person. It frequently appears in one of the following forms: a short story, a novel, a play, a poem, a pun, or a fairy tale.
Good fiction is no easier to write than is good nonfiction. A fiction writer must also be skilled in spelling, punctuation, grammar, usage, and diction, and be very self-disciplined. A good imagination is not enough to make a good fiction writer.

GRAMMAR
Accuracy of focus cannot be achieved without attention to grammatical details, including appropriate inflection (the changes of form that words undergo to mark such distinctions as those of case, gender, number, tense, person, mood, or voice) and syntax (the way in which words are put together to form phrases, clauses, or sentences).

KNOWLEDGE
Draw on and add to that which you already have. Listen. Read widely. Write constantly. Be open to constructive criticism.

LIMITS
Parameters for focus and development are requisite. In the beginning, you limit yourself via the thesis statement. In development, you limit yourself to that which will supplement and prove your thesis (allowing for differences of opinion). In concluding, you tie together the main points, which support the thesis.

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

DEFINITION

As a pattern of development, definition most often appears in a supporting role. Begin by putting a word/concept in a larger class, and then explain why/how it is distinct from other members of the class. Elaborate on the particulars of its distinctness. Organize from general to specific and often support by extended definitions.

The amount of detail and the length of an extended definition depend on complexity. THE overall purpose is to help readers understand difficult-to-comprehend abstractions.

DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

In descriptive writing, the goal is the same as in argumentative or persuasive writing: to get the reader to see something the same way you do. But with argumentative or persuasive writing, you have an action you want your reader to either abstain from or to do.

There are two general categories of descriptive writing. Objective description is often found in business, technical, scientific, and journalistic writing, i.e. procedures manuals and non-editorial news reporting. Subjective description is impressionistic, vivid, personal, and emotional--and may be much more common in everyday life.

What is important in good descriptive writing? Detail, detail, detail. Shades, tones, textures, and scenets, precise and particular. And none that mar the image you are building in your reader's mind. Use sharpness, even in the shadings.

DETAIL

Pay close attention to detail not only in the use of examples but also in the exactness of both the word and the illustration.

DIALOGUE

or conversation, between two people, or with oneself, provides the reader with insight and moves the story forward without the writer standing on the stage in a didactic mode.

DOCUMENTATION

Complete documentation of your research as you are doing it will help you avoid plagiarism.

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Brevity

Don't use any more words than you have to. Simplify, pare down. Ask yourself, what will be lost if I leave this out? What will be gained if I leave this in?

Buy and use Strunk and White's ELEMENTS OF STYLE and Zinsser's ON WRITING WELL.

Clarity

"Clarity" is a noun which means "the quality or state of being clear." To clarify is to free from confusion, to make [more] understandable.

Clarity is rarely accomplished in the writing of the first draft of any piece, barring a list of numbers--and even numbers can be misstated. Ask anyone who has had to balance a checkbook.

Revising for clarification is something you will always be doing, no matter what you are writing, no matter how proficient a writer you become.

Coherence

Maintaining your consistency of focus is one of the challenges of writing. Coherence, marked by the smooth transition from one thought to another, comes with practice.

Concisness

A thesaurus is invaluable as a source for finding the best, most concise, words to capture your ideas and their nuances.

And read. Stretch your vocabulary. That, too, will make it possible for you to write more clearly, more coherently, and with conciseness.

Content

Content and form are almost inseperable. If you want what you are writing about to be understood and to be taken seriously, you must fashion its form in such a way as to make it understandable and appealing.

Brilliant writing won't be seen as such unless it is done in workmanlike fashion.

Accuracy in writing, punctuation, grammar, usage and diction combined with a well-thought-out thesis and cogently developed argument will produce a good piece of work.

Context

That which surrounds and helps to make sensible. More often than not, you will hear, "don't take that out of context!" which means, look not only at a part, but at all that goes before and behind that.

Looking at the context will help you make more sense out of what someone else has written, Then, as you write, make sure that the logic of your piece is clear.

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Audience

A great deal will depend on whom you are writing for. Your form will depend on your content, and that will depend on who is going to read what you write. The clearer the picture you have of your audience, the better you can select and organize your material effectively.

If you keep a journal, you are most likely your only audience. If you have a job which requires you to produce written material on a regular basis, who your audience is will perhaps vary from assignment to assignment. When you take a course, your syllabus will list what is required of you and who your audience will be.

Some factors could include age, educational level, preferences, social or business status, expectations, and knowledge of the subject you are covering.

A Writer's Alphabet of Concepts and Clues

Accuracy

Accuracy is not accidental, nor optional, nor easy, yet it is essential. Accurate research (facts, sources) plus correct spelling, punctuation, grammar, diction, and usage are crucial no matter what the occasion for writing.

A piece of writing which contains numerous errors in these can lead a reader to the conclusion that the writer wasn't really concerned with either the subject or the reader.

Carelessness at any point in the writing process can lead to inaccurate conclusions.